Which One of the Worldwide Families Would See the Universe as a Closed System

Grouping of interacting or interrelated entities that form a unified whole

For the set of rules that govern structure or beliefs of people, see Social system.

A arrangement is a grouping of interacting or interrelated elements that act co-ordinate to a set of rules to form a unified whole.^[i] A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described past its boundaries, structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of report of systems theory and other systems sciences.

Etymology [edit]

The term organisation comes from the Latin word systēma, in plough from Greek σύστημα systēma: "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".^[2]

History [edit]

According to Marshall McLuhan,

"System" means "something to look at". Yous must have a very loftier visual gradient to have systematization. Only in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "arrangement". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".^{[3] [iv]}

In the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the arrangement which he called the working substance (typically a body of water vapor) in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could exist put in contact with either a banality, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working torso could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this moving picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working trunk" when referring to the system.

The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became 1 of the pioneers of the general systems theory. In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them. ^[5]

Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to written report systems, carried out pregnant development in the concept of a system.^{[vi] [vii]}

In the 1980s John Henry Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute.

Concepts [edit]

Environment and boundaries

Systems theory views the world as a complex arrangement of interconnected parts. 1 scopes a organisation by defining its boundary; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are exterior—role of the environment. One can make simplified representations (models) of the system in order to sympathise it and to predict or touch on its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system.

Natural and human-made systems

At that place are natural and homo-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective just their behavior tin be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Homo-fabricated systems are made with variable purposes that are accomplished by some activity performed past or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work equally a coherent entity" — otherwise they would be two or more than distinct systems.

Open systems have input and output flows, representing exchanges of matter, energy or information with their surroundings.

Theoretical framework

Well-nigh systems are open systems, exchanging matter and energy with their corresponding surroundings; like a car, a coffeemaker, or Earth. A closed system exchanges free energy, just not matter, with its environment; like a estimator or the project Biosphere two. An isolated system exchanges neither affair nor energy with its environment. A theoretical instance of such system is the Universe.

Procedure and transformation process

An open system tin also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a black box that is a procedure or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.

Organization model

A system comprises multiple views. Man-made systems may have such views as concept, analysis, design, implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these views.

Systems architecture

A systems architecture, using one single integrated model for the description of multiple views, is a kind of system model.

Subsystem [edit]

A subsystem is a prepare of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger organisation. The IBM Mainframe Job Entry Subsystem family (JES1, JES2, JES3, and their HASP/ASP predecessors) are examples. The main elements they have in mutual are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also accept the ability to collaborate with local and remote operators.

A subsystem description is a arrangement object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the arrangement.^[8] The Data tests are performed to verify the definiteness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.1000. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in lodge to test its Specific Application (SA).^[9]

Analysis [edit]

There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For instance, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, A .West. Steiss^[10] defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey^[11] defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open up. Walter F. Buckley^[12] divers systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and procedure models. Bela H. Banathy^[13] cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. bogus, systems.

It is of import not to confuse these abstract definitions. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the Solar System, galaxies, and the Universe, while artificial systems include human being-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human being elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations.

Artificial systems inherently take a major defect: they must be premised on ane or more than cardinal assumptions upon which additional knowledge is congenital. This is in strict alignment to the Gödel'south incompleteness theorems. The Artificial system can be defined every bit a "consistent formalized system which contains elementary arithmetic".^[fourteen] These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition exist assumed as true, and if they are really false then the system is non as structurally integral equally is assumed (i.east. it is evident that if the initial expession is false, so the Artificial system is not a "consistent formalized organisation"). For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them.

George J. Klir^[xv] maintained that no "classification is consummate and perfect for all purposes", and divers systems every bit abstruse, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. It seems nigh unlikely that an absolutely airtight system can exist or, if it did, that it could exist known by homo. Of import distinctions have also been made^[16] between hard systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations enquiry, and quantitative systems analysis – and soft systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such every bit activity research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified every bit more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.

Cultural organization [edit]

A cultural system may exist divers as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural arrangement is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural organization". A major concern of the social sciences is the problem of guild.

Economical system [edit]

An economic system is a machinery (social institution) which deals with the product, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economical system is equanimous of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the bug of economics, like the resource allotment and scarcity of resources.

The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. This systems fashion of international assay has however been challenged by other schools of international relations idea, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the part of individual bureau in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more accent on systems generated past rules and interaction governance, particularly economical governance.

Applications [edit]

Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities nether business organization. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler.

No model of a organisation will include all features of the real organization of business organization, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.

Data and informatics [edit]

In reckoner science and information science, system is a hardware organisation, software organisation, or combination, which has components as its structure and observable inter-process communications as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, equally with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal Classification is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this instance to facilitate the menstruation of information).

Organisation tin besides refer to a framework, aka platform, be it software or hardware, designed to permit software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an unabridged system to neglect to perform its required office, e.g., an incorrect statement or data definition^[17]

Applied science and physics [edit]

In engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is existence studied (of which a thermodynamic organization is one major case). Engineering besides has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems technology is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Expected result is the behavior predicted past the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.^[17]

Sociology, cognitive science and direction inquiry [edit]

Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include man brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.

In management science, operations inquiry and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such every bit subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations every bit systems in his volume The 5th Field of study.

Organizational theorists such equally Margaret Wheatley have too described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as breakthrough physics, chaos theory, and the self-organisation of systems.

Pure logic [edit]

There is also such a thing as a logical system. The about obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously past Leibniz and Isaac Newton. Some other example is George Boole's Boolean operators. Other examples accept related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cerebral science. Maslow'southward bureaucracy of needs applies psychology to biological science by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such equally personalities, motivations, or intellect and want. Often these domains consist of general categories post-obit a corollary such every bit a theorem. Logic has been practical to categories such every bit taxonomy, ontology, assessment, and hierarchies.

Strategic thinking [edit]

In 1988, military strategist, John A. Warden III introduced the Five Band System model in his book, The Air Entrada, contending that whatsoever circuitous system could be cleaved down into five concentric rings. Each band—Leadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Units—could be used to isolate key elements of whatsoever system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Forcefulness planners in the Showtime Gulf State of war.^{[xviii] [nineteen] [xx]} In the tardily 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.

Run into also [edit]

References [edit]

1. ^ "Definition of system". Merriam-Webster. Springfield, MA, USA. Retrieved 2019-01-16 .
2. ^ "σύστημα", Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English language Dictionary, on Perseus Digits Library.
3. ^ Marshall McLuhan in: McLuhan: Hot & Absurd. Ed. by Gerald Emanuel Stearn. A Signet Volume published past The New American Library, New York, 1967, p. 288.
4. ^ McLuhan, Marshall (2014). "4: The Hot and Cool Interview". In Moos, Michel″ (ed.). Media Research: Engineering science, Fine art and Communication: Disquisitional Voices in Art, Theory and Culture. Critical Voices in Art, Theory and Civilisation. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN9781134393145 . Retrieved 2015-05-06 . 'Organisation' ways 'something to look at'. You must accept a very high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, before Descartes, there was no 'system.' Plato had no 'system.' Aristotle had no 'organization.'
5. ^ 1945, Zu einer allgemeinen Systemlehre, Blätter für deutsche Philosophie, 3/4. (Extract in: Biologia Generalis, 19 (1949), 139–164.
6. ^ 1948, Cybernetics: Or the Control and Advice in the Animal and the Auto. Paris, French republic: Librairie Hermann & Cie, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Printing.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
7. ^ 1956. An Introduction to Cybernetics, Chapman & Hall.
8. ^ IBM's definition @ http://world wide web.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/ssw_i5_54/rzaks/rzakssbsd.htm
9. ^ European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) - EN 50128. Brussels, Belgium: CENELEC. 2011. pp. Tabular array A.eleven – Information Préparation Techniques (eight.4).
10. ^ Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–eighteen.
11. ^ Bailey, 1994.
12. ^ Buckley, 1967.
13. ^ Banathy, 1997.
14. ^ K.Gödel, 1931
15. ^ Klir, 1969, pp. 69–72
16. ^ Checkland, 1997; Flood, 1999.
17. ^ ^{a b} "ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing". Retrieved fifteen March 2019.
18. ^ Warden, John A. Iii (1988). The Air Campaign: Planning for Combat. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Printing. ISBN978-1-58348-100-4.
19. ^ Warden, John A. III (September 1995). "Chapter 4: Air theory for the 21st century". Battlefield of the Future: 21st Century Warfare Issues. U.s. Air Forcefulness. Archived from the original (in Air and Space Power Journal) on July 4, 2011. Retrieved Dec 26, 2008.
20. ^ Warden, John A. III (1995). "Enemy equally a Arrangement". Airpower Journal. Bound (9): xl–55. Retrieved 2009-03-25 .

Bibliography [edit]

• Alexander Backlund (2000). "The definition of system". In: Kybernetes Vol. 29 nr. iv, pp. 444–451.
• Kenneth D. Bailey (1994). Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis. New York: Country of New York Press.
• Bela H. Banathy (1997). "A Gustation of Systemics", ISSS The Primer Project.
• Walter F. Buckley (1967). Sociology and Modern Systems Theory, New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs.
• Peter Checkland (1997). Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
• Michel Crozier, Erhard Friedberg (1981). Actors and Systems, Chicago University Printing.
• Robert L. Flood (1999). Rethinking the 5th Discipline: Learning within the unknowable. London: Routledge.
• George J. Klir (1969). Approach to General Systems Theory, 1969.
• Brian Wilson (1980). Systems: Concepts, methodologies and Applications, John Wiley
• Brian Wilson (2001). Soft Systems Methodology—Conceptual model edifice and its contribution, J.H.Wiley.
• Beynon-Davies P. (2009). Business Information + Systems. Palgrave, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-0-230-20368-6

External links [edit]

Look up system in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Arrangement

• Definitions of Systems and Models by Michael Pidwirny, 1999–2007.
• Publications with the title "System" (1600–2008) by Roland Müller.
• Definitionen von "System" (1572–2002) past Roland Müller, (most in German).

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System

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